Reglamento (UE) 2024/900 sobre transparencia y segmentación de la publicidad política
¿el fin del microtargeting electoral en la Unión Europea?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37417/REDE/num99_2026_3544Palabras clave:
Microtargeting electoral, publicidad política, Reglamento (UE) 2024/900 sobre transparencia y segmentación de la publicidad política (RTSPP), técnicas de segmentaciónResumen
El microtargeting electoral afronta un nuevo escenario normativo tras la entrada en vigor del Reglamento (UE) 2024/900 sobre transparencia y segmentación de la publicidad política (RTSPP). Este trabajo examina si el microtargeting electoral puede operar dentro de los límites que dicha norma impone. Además, ofrece cuatro aportaciones concretas a la literatura. Primero, establece una metodología analítica basada en la descomposición del microtargeting en dos momentos —creación y difusión del mensaje— que permite evaluar el impacto regulatorio. Segundo, identifica el «efecto cascada» como el mecanismo explicativo mediante el cual las restricciones en la recolección de datos se propagan y amplifican hacia las fases siguientes, lo que puede generar subgrupos menos homogéneos, mensajes menos específicos y un mayor riesgo de mistargeting. Tercero, advierte que, pese a no prohibir el microtargeting, el RTSPP podría desincentivar esta práctica y, en su lugar, impulsar métodos de segmentación basados en un único criterio —como el geográfico— que no constituyen microtargeting en sentido estricto. Cuarto, concluye que el microtargeting electoral sobrevive formalmente al RTSPP al cumplir los cuatro criterios que lo definen, si bien el tercero de ellos —formación de subgrupos homogéneos— podría quedar tensionado por las exigencias normativas.
Descargas
Referencias
Abrams, Martin. The Origins of Personal Data and Its Implications for Governance. (Rochester, NY), 2014. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2510927. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2510927
Ali, Muhammad, Piotr Sapiezynski, Aleksandra Korolova, Alan Mislove, y Aaron Rieke. «Ad Delivery Algorithms: The Hidden Arbiters of Political Messaging». Proceedings of the 14th ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining, 2021, 13-21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3437963.3441801
Aral, Sinan. The hype machine: How social media disrupts our elections, our economy, and our health–and how we must adapt. Crown Currency, 2021.
Arenas Ramiro, Mónica. «Protección de datos personales y procesos electorales». En Propuesta de modernización de la Ley Orgánica del Régimen Electoral General: Ideas para su reforma tras cuatro décadas de vigencia. Miguel Ángel Presno y Carlos Fernández Esquer (eds.). Marcial Pons, 2025.
Bandy, Jack, y Nicholas Diakopoulos. #TulsaFlop: A Case Study of Algorithmically-Influenced Collective Action on TikTok. 2020. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2012.07716.
Barredo Artiguez, Ángel. «La anulación jurisdiccional de elecciones presidenciales en la experiencia comparada». Anuario Iberoamericano de Justicia Constitucional 29, n.o 2 (2025): 109-39. https://doi.org/10.18042/cepc/aijc.29.2.04. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18042/cepc/aijc.29.2.04
Blasi Casagran, Cristina, y Mathias Vermeulen. «Reflections on the murky legal practices of political micro-targeting from a GDPR perspective». International Data Privacy Law 11, n.o 4 (2021): 348-59. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipab018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipab018
Bon, Esmeralda, Katharine Dommett, Rachel Gibson, Sanne Kruikemeier, y Sophie Lecheler. «Are Certain Types of Microtargeting More Acceptable? Comparing US, German, and Dutch Citizens’ Attitudes». Media and Communication 12, n.o 0 (2024). https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.8520. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.8520
Carvalho, Vinicius, Simone de Araújo Góes Assis, y Sergio Cortes. «Segmentation strategies for political marketing on social media: a cluster analysis». XXVIII Seminários em Administração (2025), 2025.
Cebrián Beltrán, Selena. «De la talla única al traje a medida: perfiles constitucionales del microtargeting político para influir en las elecciones». Corts: Anuario de derecho parlamentario, n.o 38 (2024): 287-310.
Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas. Estudio sobre audiencias de medios de comunicación social (II). Estudio 3511. Madrid, 2025. https://www.cis.es/es/w/3511-estudio-sobre-audiencias-de-medios-de-comunicacion-social-ii.
Chu, Xiaotong, Rens Vliegenthart, Lukas Otto, Sophie Lecheler, Claes de Vreese, y Sanne Kruikemeier. «Do Online Ads Sway Voters? Understanding the Persuasiveness of Online Political Ads». Political Communication 41, n.o 2 (2024): 290-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2023.2276104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2023.2276104
Coppock, Alexander, Seth J. Hill, y Lynn Vavreck. «The small effects of political advertising are small regardless of context, message, sender, or receiver: Evidence from 59 real-time randomized experiments». Science Advances 6, n.o 36 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc4046. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc4046
Costica Dumbrava, Members’ Research Service. Key Social Media Risks to Democracy: Risks from Surveillance, Personalisation, Disinformation, Moderation and Microtargeting. European Parliamentary Research Service, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2861/135170.
Dobber, Tom. «Data & Democracy: Political Microtargeting: A Threat to Electoral Integrity?» 2020.
Dobber, Tom, Sanne Kruikemeier, Natali Helberger, y Ellen Goodman. «Shielding Citizens? Understanding the Impact of Political Advertisement Transparency Information». New Media & Society 26, n.o 11 (2024): 6715-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231157640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448231157640
Dobber, Tom, Nadia Metoui, Damian Trilling, Natali Helberger, y Claes de Vreese. «Do (Microtargeted) Deepfakes Have Real Effects on Political Attitudes?» The International Journal of Press/Politics 26, n.o 1 (2021): 69-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220944364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220944364
Drunen, Max Zeno van, Natalie Helberger, y Ronan Ó Fathaigh. «The beginning of EU political advertising law: unifying democratic visions through the internal market». International Journal of Law and Information Technology 30, n.o 2 (2022): 181-99. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaac017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaac017
Edelson, Laura, Dominique Lockett, Celia Guillard, et al. «What Drives Perceptions of the Political in Online Advertising?: The Source, Content, and Political Orientation». Journal of Experimental Political Science, 10 de septiembre de 2025, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2025.4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2025.4
Europa Press. «Comunicado: Ciutadans, una campaña inteligente basada en Microtargeting». 11 de diciembre de 2012. https://www.europapress.es/economia/noticia-comunicado-ciutadans-campana-inteligente-basada-microtargeting-20121211112343.html.
Evangelista, Rafael, y Fernanda Bruno. «WhatsApp and political instability in Brazil: targeted messages and political radicalisation». Internet Policy Review, 2019. https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.1434. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.1434
Ferrer Martín de Vidales, Covadonga. «Microtargeting electoral: cómo proteger los datos de las opiniones políticas de las personas y luchar contra la desinformación a través de la normativa europea». Revista Española de Derecho Europeo, n.o 94 (agosto de 2025): 31-77. https://doi.org/10.37417/REDE/num94_2025_3075. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37417/REDE/num94_2025_3075
Friestad, Marian, y Peter Wright. «The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts». Journal of Consumer Research 21, n.o 1 (1994): 1-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/209380
Garrote de Marcos, María. «La IA en período electoral: tres propuestas a partir de la integridad electoral». En Fortalecimiento de la democracia y el Estado de Derecho a través de la inteligencia artificial. Rafael Bustos Gisbert y Francisco Javier García Roca. Instituto Vasco de Administración Pública, 2025.
Google. «An Update on Political Advertising in the European Union». Blog.Google, 14 de noviembre de 2024. https://blog.google/company-news/inside-google/around-the-globe/google-europe/political-advertising-in-eu/.
Gorton, William A. «Manipulating Citizens: How Political Campaigns’ Use of Behavioral Social Science Harms Democracy». New Political Science 38, n.o 1 (2016): 61-80. https://doi.org/10.1080/07393148.2015.1125119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07393148.2015.1125119
Haenschen, Katherine. «The Conditional Effects of Microtargeted Facebook Advertisements on Voter Turnout». Political Behavior 45 (s. f.): 1661-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09781-7
Haley, Russell I. «Benefit Segmentation: A Decision-Oriented Research Tool». Journal of Marketing 32, n.o 3 (1968): 30-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224296803200306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/002224296803200306
Han, Byung-Chul. Infocracia: La digitalización y la crisis de la democracia. Taurus, 2022.
Hersh, Eitan D., y Brian F. Schaffner. «Targeted Campaign Appeals and the Value of Ambiguity». The Journal of Politics Vol. 75, n.o 2 (2013): 520-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381613000182
Hove, M. F. «The Nature and Consequences of Online Political Microtargeting». 2025. https://dare.uva.nl/search?identifier=20085d37-6ff7-43c4-b439-c1bf724228f8.
Hughes, Andrew. «Defining negative political advertising: definition, features and tactics». Marketing discoveries, knowledge and contribution: celebration of Ehrenberg and Bass (Adelaide), 2003, 163-71.
Information Commissioner’s Office. «Big data, artificial intelligence, machine learning and data protection». 2017. https://ico.org.uk/media2/bnllc0ea/big-data-ai-ml-and-data-protection.pdf.
Jaursch, Julian. «Defining Online Political Advertising: How Difficulties in Delineating Paid Political Communication Can Be Addressed». Interface, 2020. https://www.interface-eu.org/publications/defining-online-political-advertising.
Jove Villares, Daniel. «La inconstitucional habilitación a los partidos políticos para recabar datos sobre opiniones políticas: Comentario a la STC 76/2019, de 22 de mayo». Revista Española de Derecho Constitucional, n.o 121 (2021): 303-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18042/cepc/redc.121.10
Joyal-Desmarais, Keven, Alexandra K. Scharmer, Molly K. Madzelan, Jolene V. See, Alexander J. Rothman, y Mark Snyder. «Appealing to motivation to change attitudes, intentions, and behavior: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 702 experimental tests of the effects of motivational message matching on persuasion». Psychological Bulletin 148, n.o 7-8 (2022): 465-517. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000377. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000377
Kang, Taewoo. «The Effects of Targeted Campaign Messages on Candidate Evaluations». American Politics Research 52, n.o 1 (2024): 67-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X231206144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X231206144
Kirsten, Martin. «Manipulation, Privacy, And Choice». North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology 23 (2022): 452-525.
Lassen, David Dreyer. «The Effect of Information on Voter Turnout: Evidence from a Natural Experiment». American Journal of Political Science 49, n.o 1 (2005): 103-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00113.x
Lauzirika Ansola, Iker. «La desinformación en campañas en línea: contexto y consecuencias del reglamento (UE) sobre transparencia y segmentación en la publicidad política». Legebiltzarreko Aldizkaria – Revista del Parlamento Vasco: LEGAL, n.o 5 (2024): 2-24.
Lavigne, Mathieu. «Strengthening Ties: The Influence of Microtargeting on Partisan Attitudes and the Vote». Party Politics 27, n.o 5 (2021): 965-76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068820918387. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068820918387
Liberties.eu. «Meta and Google, Don’t Throw European Voters Under The Bus: Why Self-Imposed Political Advertising Bans Threaten Free and Fair Elections in Europe». Liberties.Eu, 25 de septiembre de 2025. https://www.liberties.eu/en/stories/meta-google-advertising-bans/45513.
Lippitt, William, Nichole E. Carlson, Jaron Arbet, Tasha E. Fingerlin, Lisa A. Maier, y Katerina Kechris. «Limitations of clustering with PCA and correlated noise». Journal of Statistical Computation and Simulation 94, n.o 10 (2024): 2291-319. https://doi.org/10.1080/00949655.2024.2329976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00949655.2024.2329976
López Ortega, Alberto. «Are Microtargeted Campaign Messages More Negative and Diverse? An Analysis of Facebook Ads in European Election Campaigns». European Political Science 21, n.o 3 (2022): 335-58. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-021-00346-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-021-00346-6
Meta. «Ending Political, Electoral and Social Issue Advertising in the EU in Response to Incoming European Regulation». Meta Newsroom, 25 de julio de 2025. https://about.fb.com/news/2025/07/ending-political-electoral-and-social-issue-advertising-in-the-eu/.
National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). «Access To and Use Of Voter Registration Lists». Accedido 24 de marzo de 2026. https://www.ncsl.org/elections-and-campaigns/access-to-and-use-of-voter-registration-lists.
Nickerson, David W., y Todd Rogers. «Political Campaigns and Big Data». Journal of Economic Perspectives 28, n.o 2 (2014): 51-74. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.28.2.51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.28.2.51
Nikiforov, Liubomir. «Transparency in Targeting of Political Advertising: Challenges Remain». Social Science Research Network, 2024. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5054430. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5054430
noyb.eu. «C031 C-Planet». 11 de diciembre de 2020. https://noyb.eu/en/project/political-microtargeting-manipulation-tracking/c031.
Oluwafemi, Ifeoluwa Oreofe, Tosin Clement, Oluwasanmi Segun Adanigbo, Toluwase Peter Gbenle, y Bolaji Iyanu Adekunle. «Investigating the Trade-Off between Data Granularity and Consumer Trust in Federated Marketing Analytics Using Differential Privacy Techniques». International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology 11, n.o 5 (2024): 701-17. https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST52310376. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST52310376
Papakyriakopoulos, Orestis. «Political machines: machine learning for understanding the politics of social machines». PhD dissertation, Technical University of Munich, 2020.
Prummer, Anja. «Micro-targeting and polarization». Journal of Public Economics 188 (2020): 104210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104210
Rhum, Kimberly. «Information Fiduciaries and Political Microtargeting: A Legal Framework for Regulating Political Advertising on Digital Platforms». Northwestern University Law Review 115, n.o 6 (2021): 1829-74.
Rohrschneider, Robert. «Mobilizing versus chasing: how do parties target voters in election campaigns?» Electoral Studies 21, n.o 3 (2002): 367-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(00)00044-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(00)00044-5
Sánchez Muñoz, Óscar. La regulación de las campañas electorales en la era digital. Desinformación y microsegmentación en las redes sociales con fines electorales. Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 2020.
Saunders, Joe. «Dark Advertising and the Democratic Process». En Big Data and Democracy, editado por Kevin Macnish y Jai Galliott. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474463522.003.0006
Saura García, Carlos. «El big data en los procesos políticos: hacia una democracia de la vigilancia». Revista de filosofía 80 (2023): 215-32. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-43602023000100215. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-43602023000100215
Simchon, Almog, Matthew Edwards, y Stephan Lewandowsky. «The persuasive effects of political microtargeting in the age of generative artificial intelligence». PNAS Nexus 3, n.o 2 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae035
Solovev, Kirill, Chiara Drolsbach, Emma Demirel, y Nicolas Pröllochs. «TikTok Rewards Divisive Political Messaging During the 2025 German Federal Election». arXiv, 2025. https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.10336v1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjds/s13688-026-00632-7
Speicher, Till, Muhammad Ali, Giridhari Venkatadri, et al. «Potential for Discrimination in Online Targeted Advertising». Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency, 2018, 1-15. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/speicher18a.html.
Steuart, Jada. «Netflix’s “The Great Hack” Highlights Cambridge Analytica’s Role in Trinidad & Tobago Elections». Global Voices, 5 de agosto de 2019. https://globalvoices.org/2019/08/05/netflixs-the-great-hack-highlights-cambridge-analyticas-role-in-trinidad-tobago-elections/.
Susser, Daniel, Beate Roessler, y Helen Nissenbaum. «Online Manipulation: Hidden Influences in a Digital World». Georgetown Law Technology Review 1 4, n.o 1 (2019): 1-45. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3306006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3306006
TikTok. «Understanding our policies around paid ads». TikTok Newsroom. Accedido 18 de mayo de 2026. https://newsroom.tiktok.com/understanding-our-policies-around-paid-ads?lang=en.
Trish, Barbara. «Big Data under Obama and Trump: The Data-Fueled U.S. Presidency». Politics and Governance 6, n.o 4 (2018): 29-39. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v6i4.1565. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v6i4.1565
Vercelli, Ariel. «La (des)protección de los datos personales: análisis del caso Facebook Inc. - Cambridge Analytica». SID, Simposio Argentino de Informática y Derecho, septiembre de 2018, 1-12.
Világi Máté. «Despite ban, Fidesz still freely advertises on Facebook via its Digital Civic Circles». telex, 29 de octubre de 2025. https://telex.hu/english/2025/10/29/despite-the-ban-fidesz-continues-to-advertise-on-facebook-with-its-digital-civic-circles-freely.
Votta, Fabio. «What Data Reveals About Meta and Google’s Political Ad Ban in the EU». Tech Policy Press, 3 de noviembre de 2025. https://techpolicy.press/what-data-reveals-about-meta-and-googles-political-ad-ban-in-the-eu.
Waggoner, Philip D. Unsupervised Machine Learning for Clustering in Political and Social Research. Elements in Quantitative and Computational Methods for the Social Sciences. Cambridge University Press, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108883955. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108883955
Zarouali, Brahim, Tom Dobber, Guy De Pauw, y Claes de Vreese. «Using a Personality-Profiling Algorithm to Investigate Political Microtargeting: Assessing the Persuasion Effects of Personality-Tailored Ads on Social Media». Communication Research 49, n.o 8 (2022): 1066-91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650220961965. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650220961965
Zuiderveen Borgesius, Frederik J., Judith Möller, Sanne Kruikemeier, et al. «Online Political Microtargeting: Promises and Threats for Democracy». Utrecht Law Review 14, n.o 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.18352/ulr.420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18352/ulr.420
